Midterm Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Midterm - Assignment Example The fall of this age credited with the Dorian Invasion, which is believed to have happened around 1100 B.C., and which came to be the conclusive deathblow to the Minoan civilization (Lawall & Maynard 24). According to Greek legend, it was in this age that the Oedipus tragedy evolved, and the story later depicted in Aeschylus' Oresteia played out. This was the time of the famous Trojan War, which left the Trojans and Greeks alike bereft of some of their most beloved and courageous men who died as heroes on the incarnadine battle fields (Lawall & Maynard 34). This was the time of the wonderings of Aeneas and Odysseus after the war, and a time where the inhabitants of Mount Olympus interacted with the humans more than ever. Homer did not live during the time, which is named after him. He is believed to have lived three hundred years after the Homeric Age of which he wrote about in his epic poems (35). He is, of course, our most important literary source for knowledge of this period, com bining the history, religion, myth, and lore of many generations (Lawall & Maynard 37). The political institutions of the Homeric Greeks were exceedingly primitive. ... Practically his only functions were military and priestly. He commanded the army in time of war and offered sacrifices to keep the gods on the good side of the community (Lawall & Maynard 48). Although each little group of villages had its council of nobles and assembly of warriors, of these bodies had neither any definite membership nor status as an organ of government. The duties of the former were to advise and assist the king and prevent him from usurping despotic powers. The  functions of the latter were to ratify declarations of war and assent to the conclusion of peace (Lawall & Maynard 50). Almost without exception, custom took the place of law, and the administration of justice was private. Even willful murder was punishable only by the family of the victim. While it is true that the king for settlement, he acted in such cases merely as an arbitrator, not as a judge. As a matter of fact, the political consciousness of   the Greeks of this time was so poorly developed tha t they had no conception of government as an indispensable agency for the preservation of social order. When Odysseus, king of Ithaca , was absent for twenty years , no regent was appointed in his place , and no session of the council or assembly was held. No one seemed to think that the complete suspension of government, even for so long a time, was a matter of any critical importance. Just before the violent Doric invasions, the Achaeans fought the Trojans of Asia Minor. The chronicle of that war, the Iliad, furnishes the first clear picture of the early Greek religion as it evolved from a blending of Achaean, Dorian, Minoan, Egyptian, and Asian elements. This phase of Greek religion called Homeric, after the

Stonehenge Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are few ancient structures in the world that captivate the imagination and the critical mind of both the scholarly and ordinary individual as Stonehenge. This intriguingly mysterious Neolithic monument is located near Amesbury in Wiltshire, England and draws thousands of spectators to its arena each year. The oldest part of Stonehenge, called Stonehenge I (constructed ca. 3100 BCE), consists of little more than a circular ditch dug in the soil of the Salisbury plain, with the excess soil piled up to make an embankment approximately six feet tall. This area is approximately three hundred thirty feet in diameter, and encompasses â€Å"Stonehenge proper† – the familiar circles of massive stones that once stood upright as well as the large horseshoe arrangement of standing stones near the center of Stonehenge. (Trefil 48) The outer ring of Stonehenge proper, also known as the â€Å"sarsen circle,† consists of several upright sarsen (gray sandstone) stones. According to the text of Art History, each stone in this circle weighs up to fifty tons and stands up to twenty feet tall, and was once â€Å"capped by a continuous lintel.† To accomplish this architectural structure, the builders used the technique of mortise-and-tendon joints to join and ensure the security of the lintel sections. With this technique, a projecting pin (tenon) located on a lintel fits tightly into a hole designed for it (mortise) on an upright stone. (Stokstad 59) Inside the sarsen circle was once a ring of bluestones. These special stones consisted of various grades of bluish dolerite, which (many individuals conclude) were only found one hundred fifty miles away in the mountains of southern Wales. The inner horseshoe arrangement of five paired lintel-topped uprights, or trilithons, dominates the center of Stonehenge. These sandstone trilithons range in height of up to twenty-four feet, weigh up to forty-five tons, and radiate the mysterious majesty of the megalithic structure. (Stokstad 59) Whatever the method by which the stones arrived on Salisbury Plain, they were apparently set up in about 2800-2700 BCE in either the unfinished circle or the incomplete horseshoe open to the south-west. A century or so later, (ca. 2500 BCE) the great sarsen circle was constructed, and the bluestones were dragged from their holes only to be returned some centuries later to form the i... ...few miles from Stonehenge where there was a convenient glacial deposit of the only stones used for Stonehenge. (Burl 22) However, the view remains that the massive stones of Stonehenge were, indeed, transported hundreds of miles to Salisbury Plain. Assuming that the bluestones were brought from Wales by hand and not transported by glaciers as Aubrey Burl has claimed (or moved by the magical hand of Merlin), various methods of moving them relying only on wood and rope have been suggested. During 2001, in an exercise of experimental archaeology, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to Stonehenge. Volunteers successfully pulled the massive stone on a wooden sled over land, but it was ultimately lost in rough seas after being moved to a replica prehistoric boat for its journey across the Bristol Channel. (Burl 21) As we have observed, legends about the origin and purpose of Stonehenge are many in number. It is quite possible that we may never discover the truth behind the mysterious circles of stones on Salisbury Plain, yet it is also true that the intrigue and fascination that accompanies the existence of Stonehenge will surely remain.

Verba and Non-Verbal Communication Theories

In all communication events, unless there is a relationship between actions and words, the message can be wrongly interpreted. I observed a conversation between a bartender and a customer in busy and crowded bar. The customer wanted the buy one more double bourbon but the bartender refused to sell to him. This resulted in a series of communication theories, which will be analysed later. In order to analyse the communication theories that provide most insight into understanding the dynamics of the observed event, it is necessary to define what communication is and examine the different communication models and theories used in the observed event. In the context of the observed event, verbal and nonverbal communication, paralanguage, noise (psychological and physical), attribution errors, body movements (emblems, illustrators, affect displays and regulators) are the communication theories that will be examined to show how they all combine to give more meaning to messages. Communication is a process of which information flows from one source to a receiver and back. ( who) communication is a two way process which is complete only when the receiver gives feedback that he or she has understood the message. When people use words to communicate, they do not just listen to what is said in order to understand the message. They also look at the person who is speaking to see what their body is doing and listen to the way they are saying the words to understand their full message. For example, in the observed event, 80% of the communication has been made before the customer even opened his mouth to speak. The customer staggered to the bar and verbally asked to be served one more double bourbon. The bartender refused to serve him because he knew the customer is already drunk and according to the NSW law, should not be served any more drinks. The question is how did the bartender know the customer was drunk? As opposed to the verbal message, the bartender was able to decipher the nonverbal messages being sent by the customer – the disturbed balance in his movement, his glassy eyes, smell of alcohol, sweat on his face, and the muddled speech. ll these indicated to the bartender that this customer is drunk. When his request was denied, the customer became defensive saying he was not drunk. He refused the alternative non-alcoholic drinks offered by the bartender and became instantly aggressive, yelling and abusing the bartender. One could read the evidence of paralanguage in the customer’s voice. ‘Paralanguage is the vocal (but nonverbal) dimension of speech. (reading 2. 2) one could read from the high pitch of his voice, and the angry tone of his voice which was becoming loud that the customer is beginning to get angry and aggressive. One could also see the angry look on his face; this is called affect display which is any emotional response in a communication. There are also different body movements by both the bartender and the customer that all gave more meaning to the conversation. For example, when the customer could not be controlled, the bartender called the security staff by raising his hand palm up and establishing eye contact with him. The security understood immediately that his service was needed at the bar. This nonverbal body movement is called emblems. According to ( textbook p. 69) ‘emblems are those gestures that have a specific verbal translation. Another body movement was the way the bartender was shaking his head side to side at the same time he was declining the customer’s request. This type is called an illustrator. Illustrators are all those gestures that go along with our speech. ’(textbook p. 70) There was also the evidence of repetitions of messages in the observed event. the bartender had to explain to the customer over and over again why he would not serve him more alcohol because the customer kept saying he should be served now. Here, there was difficulty getting the message across to the customer and this could be due to a particular barrier to communication called noise. Noise is any distortion factor that blocks, disrupts, or distrusts the message being sent to the receiver, interfering with the communication process. (textbook p. 7) In this context, the noise could be psychological due to the emotional state of the customer (being drunk) or physical noise stemming from the loud music in the club and also the presence of many people. Not getting the message across easily could also be due to attribution errors which are errors people make because they assign a certain meaning to something that was not intended. In this event, the customer is of Indian origin; so it could be that he understood the bartender’s shaking of head to be a ‘Yes’ instead of ‘No’. This is because a slow shaking of head in India means ‘Yes’. The presence of regulators such as ‘pauses’ that occurred throughout this conversation indicate opportunities for feedback and responses to be sure the other person is listening. To conclude, communication, which is the exchange of ideas, knowledge, information and attitudes, is much more than words. Although verbal and nonverbal communication are similar in that they both convey meanings and different in more ways, both of them put together provide complete meaning of the message. Even though they work together, it is nonverbal communication that accounts for 65 to 93% of the total meaning of communication. (birdwhitsell, 1970; mehrabian, 1981). This means that what is not being said in a communication determines the success or failure of that communication. Due to the dynamic nature of communications, it is important to master nonverbal behaviours especially in service industries like tourism and hospitality for effective communication. The bartender being able to know the customer was drunk was due to the nonverbal symptoms of drunkenness. Most symptoms of drunkenness are universal irrespective of age, gender, culture or origin and can be easily identified. Thus the different communication theories used in this communication event: verbal and nonverbal communication (vocal and nonvocal), the different types of body movements, noise (physical and psychological), attribution errors all combine to provide the most insight into understanding the dynamics of the observed event.

The Rise of Feudalism in England - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1889 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/02/15 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Feudalism Essay Did you like this example? The heightened sense of loyalty, allegiance, and homage that developed across England throughout the early 11th century was greatly influenced by the rise of the feudal system across Medieval Europe. An interpretation of the events throughout the evolution of feudalism is presented in the novel, The Rise of Feudal Monarchies, written by Sidney Painter and published in 1951. Her elucidation of the events is closely related to the ideas of Carl Stephenson, who communicated similar ideas in his 1965 novel, Medieval Feudalism. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Rise of Feudalism in England" essay for you Create order The authors similarly discuss the emergence of the feudal system, presenting that the interpretation of the feudal conditions in England remain consistent and unvarying between the years 1951 and 1965. The inception of Feudalism in England derives from the Norman Conquest, initiated in 1066 and expedited to enforce the decentralized governmental policies of France. William the Conqueror, the former Duke of Normandy, set out to conquest control over England, and spread his ideas of reform. As William brings his ideas of a successful feudal system with him to the throne, the previous disorganized styles of government would be abolished. (Painter 44) An example of the policies that derived from French authority can be exemplified by the source created in 1110, â€Å"The Charter of Homage and Fealty†, created by Bernard Atton who was a viscount of Carcassonne. The oath details, â€Å"Moreover, I acknowledge that I hold from thee and from the said monastery as a fief the castle of Termes in Narbonne; and in Miner-ve the castle of Ventaion, and the manors of Cassanolles, and of Ferral and Aiohars; and in Le Rogs, the little village of Longville; for each and all of which I make h omage and fealty with hands and with mouth to thee my said lord abbot Leo and to thy successors, and I swear upon these four gospels of God that I will always be a faithful vassal to thee and to thy successors and to St. Mary of Grasse in all things in which a vassal is required to be faithful to his lord, and I will defend thee, my lord, and all thy successors, and the said monastery and the monks present and to come and the castles and manors and all your men and their possessions against all malefactors and invaders, at my request and that of my successors at my own cost; and I will give to thee power over all the castles and manors above described, in peace and in war, whenever they shall be claimed by thee or by thy successors† (Charter of Homage and Fealty). This pledge was an oath of loyalty to his lord Leo, and in situations like this and other ones similar, the aptitude and strength of the oath would determine the benefice of the subordinate. Throughout this excerpt, the speaker detailed the land and castles that he is interested in, in return for his loyalty and service. The benefice to the vassal, if his oath is reviewed and approved, is the desired land, castles, or monuments. This approval was determined by the level of devotion in the ideas offered by the vassals within their pledges. A subordinate must offer enough service to the lord, often including military obligations and a measurement of their wealth. Both state and society became dominated by agriculture. The methods of the feudal system were monopolizing and engrossing, but evidence supports that it was seemingly necessary to create an established military, and thus creating a systematic way to achieve this was necessary as well. (Stephenson 6-8). Vassals often would have had to offer their own self to guard and fortify the lord, and in order to protect him and his successors, they would have had to recruit and allocate other members of the militia. Beneficially, this landed a stron ger sense of commitment and devotion between the different levels and members of the social hierarchy, and the collection of knights from the lower social classes may have provided the idea of belonging. Evidence also concludes that members of England society believed they could influence figures of authority through wealth, land, and social rank and thus strived to become powerful members of society. (Painter 44-45). In Bernard Atton’s, â€Å"Charter of Homage and Fealty† of 1110, the extent of devotion that this subordinate expressed was presented to and considered by his lord Leo. Another excerpt that details the France origin of Feudalism is the oeuvre, â€Å"Modus Faciendi Homagium Fidelitatem (The Manner of Doing Homage Fealty), c. 1275†. The text expounds, â€Å"When a Freeman shall do Homage to his Lord of whom he holds in Chief, he shall hold his hands together between the hands of his Lord, and shall say thus: I become your Man from this day forth, for life, for member, and for worldly honor, and shall [owe] you Faith for the Lands that I hold of you; saving the Faith that I owe unto our Lord the King, and to [mine other Lords.]†¦. I become your Man from this day forth, and shall bear you Faith for the Tenement which I claim to hold of you; saving the Faith that I owe to our Lord the King, and to my other Lords† (Modus Faciendi Homagium Fidelitatem (The Manner of Doing Homage Fealty), c. 1275). There is a deep-rooted fidelity and devotion presented in the excerpt, utilizing phrases such as â€Å"worldly honor†, â€Å"becom e your man†, and a frequent repetition of the word â€Å"faith†. This tonality indicated an eagerness to offer devout services to Lord, exchanging their loyalty for a higher rank in society or an improved, reformed disposition. It was easy to enforce the policies of the feudal system due to the lack of a decentralized government prior to the reforms. A strong sense of leadership was established and although the conditions weren’t always ideal for the dependent peasantry, England became unified under a compound belief system. The inclination towards structured feudal systems in England was presented in Sidney Painter’s 1951 work of literature, The Rise of Feudal Monarchies, and such ideas were expressed similarly by Carl Stephenson in 1965 in his work, Medieval Feudalism. The progression towards a systematic feudal system is portrayed very similarly between the two novels, and evidence from the texts indicates that the interpretation has not significantly changed over time. In Sidney Painter’s work, The Rise of the Feudal Monarchies, the author proclaims that the idea of Feudalism originally derives from â€Å"Germanic† customs many years prior. Painter asserts that â€Å"the royal power rested on three bases. Each King had a small group of men, bound to him by special oaths of loyalty, who served as his officials and bodyguards. Clearly a later form of the Germanic Chieftain’s Comitatus† (Painter 1). The author indicates that social classes were put into a hierarchy reg arding their wealth, stability, and devotion to their lord. William of Normandy brought these policies with him as he conquered England and overrode the previous governmental ideals. In â€Å"1066 William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated and killed King Harold, and subdued the whole country. William had been brought up in a feudal environment, was the head of a great French fief, and was followed to England by men who were equally imbued with feudal ideals† (Painter 44). William believed that England required a heavier military bases and sought to establish the feudal system in order to create this. King Henry, successor and son of William the Conqueror, sought to expand the civil courts, promote new methods of jurisdiction, and further establish new processes for obtaining land. As Henry was trying to build himself up as king and figure of authority, his desire for power imploded. Following the implosion of his power, there was a dynamic change in the methods of jurisdiction. Previously, an individual who expressed their case in the court would have been severely penalized and many crimes would go unpunished. Reformed policies sought to reform these standards and required proper judicial decision to be completed in order to distribute land. These reforms also set to combat the contention and aggression found in the trials for land. Evidence throughout Painter’s work continues to support that under the reign of both King William and his successor King Henry, ones wealth and amount of land determined their worth and position in society. To exemplify further, Painter asserts that an individual could, â€Å"purchase an order moving the trial to the king’s court. Then the sheriff levied a jury of 24 knights, called a â€Å"grand assize,† who were to investigate the question and be ready to state in court which party was in the right† (Painter 60). This details that through the power of wealth, people could purchase t rials to further investigate their worthiness of the land. In the 1965 work of Carl Stephenson, Medieval Feudalism, the author expresses ideas similar to those of Sidney Painter. Stephenson also firmly asserts that the idea derived from German culture, â€Å"comitatus†, was relevant to the development of Feudalism across Europe. To exemplify, Stephenson states, â€Å"comitatus is heard of again and again in the later centuries among the Goths, the Franks, the Lombards, the Anglo-Saxons, and even in the Vikings of Scandanavia† (Stephenson 8). Detailing the spread of the feudal system throughout parts of Europe, this quote helps assert that Anglo-Saxon England began with the emergence of William the Conqueror to power in 1066. This allowed England to be introduced to a new style of government and rule, a style that was initially presented in Germanic customs and spread to places like France and England. Stephenson continues to assert this further when he states, â€Å"Clientage, involving no military service and implying anythin g but social inequality was utterly unlike the German comitatus† (Stephenson 6). This enforces that the â€Å"comitatus† structure entailed and introduced a stronger connection to military service and established social hierarchies. Stephenson asserts through this that the evolution of the feudal system in England is cultured by the ideas and practices of other rulers and places. Furthermore, Stephenson contends that â€Å"the most successful were those whose rulers maintained the best armies and the strongest administration. In such an environment feudal institutions continued to thrive because they provided a simple and practical means of government† (Stephenson 16). Detailing the reasons why feudalism was necessary in environments like England, this excerpt holds significance as it reveals similarities between the ideas of Sidney Painter and Carl Stephenson. Both Stephenson and Painter assert that feudalism was a heuristic, feasible form of governmental and m ilitary structure. The power of wealth in society is also mentioned in Stephenson’s, Medieval Feudalism. The author states that the â€Å"population tended to be sharply divided into two classes: an aristocracy of landlords and an economically dependent peasantry† (8). This section of the text illustrates that the peasantry was economically dependent on the other classes, including landlords, and that without this economic independence the peasantry had much lower levels of power and significance. This deepens the idea that state and society were monopolized by agriculture and wealth. Both Sidney Painter in her work, The Rise of Feudal Monarchies, and Carl Stephenson in his work, Medieval Feudalism, interpret the events summarizing the rise of feudal systems in medieval England under the reign of William the Conqueror and his successor, King Henry. Both authors assert that feudalism is derived from Germanic customs, known as Comitatus, that wealth and ownership of land insinuate power, and that the installment of feudal systems were necessary to create a strong military.